BILAL, SABA, AKSUM, AND ISLAM
- Noble D. LeMoore
- Feb 18
- 26 min read
Updated: Feb 25
Bilal
Bilal ibn Rabah is known in Islam to be the first chief Mu-adh-dhin [مؤذن], which is the One who calls Muslims to prayer. He was known for his strength, intelligence, and striking appearance. He is a significant being in the realm of Islam and was a close companion of messenger Muhammed (P.B.U.H.). Bilal stood by the Messenger (P.B.U.H) in all his major struggles. Bilal ibn Rabah was born in Makkah in the Hijaz area of Arabia ‘round the Year Of The Elephant, from parents who were originally free, yet eventually made captive and sent to slave labor. Bilal’s father was Arab, and his mother, Hamamah, was an Aksumite princess. The Year Of The Elephant also sets the stage for the birth of Messenger Muhammad (P.B.U.H.) in 570 CE, and is a starting point of a tremendous transformation of the paradigm of the Arabian Peninsula.
Bilal was in captivity, under the yoke of Umayyah ibn Khalaf, the chief of the pagans in Makkah and a fierce opponent of Messenger Muhammad (P.B.U.H). The light of Islam came to Bilal through the Messenger’s call to Tawhid, the Oneness of Allah/God [الله].
Bilal saw the message as a universal truth that was in perfect harmony with his own natural belief. In fact, his Aksumite spiritual heritage shows some similarities with ritual habits and prayers in Islam.
When Bilal accepted Islam, Umayyah took it as a habit to torture him, to break him off the faith. Bilal was thrown in the hot desert sand in broad daylight with a huge rock placed over him as a punishment for leaving paganism to serve Allah [الله]. No matter what the circumstance, Bilal ibn Rabah held strong to his faith. Bilal was willing to die as a martyr for the sake of the creator. As he was being tortured, he kept shouting “Ahad, Ahad”* [واحد], speaking of Allah [الله], He Is One, Only One.
*Ahad [أحد]: This is the absolute, unique one. It is an "uncountable" one. It implies something so singular and indivisible that there is no "second" or "third" possible. In contrast, the term Wahid [واحد] is the numerical one.
Bilal ibn Rabah was freed from the captivity of Umayyah ibn Khalaf with the help of Abu Bakr. Abu Bakr gave the sum of 200 Dirham* to set his brother in faith free. Umayyah told Abu Bakr that he would have accepted the deal even if he would have been offered 1 Uqiyah* (40 Dirham). So Abu Bakr answered that he was willing to pay 100 Uqiyah for him if necessary. Showing that his brother was more valuable than the ransom that he was paying.
*The weight of a Dirham at that time was 2.975 grams of silver, and a dinar was equal to forty silver Dirhams. Today, the 200 Dirham is worth approximately 1610.00$ in US dollars. Abu Bakr said he was willing to pay 100 Uqiyah (4000 Dirham) approximately equivalent to 70, 000$ US (2026). Meaning that he was willing to pay a high price to have Bilal freed.
With messenger Muhammad, Abu Bakr, ‘Ammar, and his mother Summayah, Suhaib, and Miqdad, Bilal is part of the first generation of his time to live and give voice to Islam.
Messenger Muhammad (P.B.U.H.) once had a conversation with his companion Abdulah bin Zaid on how to call people to the five daily prayers (salah). The Messenger was anxious as to how to gather the people for prayer. Some suggested him to hoist a flag at the time of prayer so the people can signal each other. Others suggested him to use a horn like the Jews, or a bell like the Christians. Then Abdulah bin Zaid comes to the messenger and speaks of a dream he had about the call to prayer (Adhan). Umar ibn Al- Khattab is said to have had the same dream. He saw a man wearing green garments carrying a bell. Abdulah asked for the bell to use it for the call to prayer. The man answered that he had something better for Abdulah. Then taught him the words of the Adhan.
Messenger Muhammad (P.B.U.H.) was pleased with the words and asked Abdulah to go to the mosque and teach it to Bilal. From there, as the chief Mu-adh-dhin [مؤذن] Bilal became the first to give his voice for the call to prayer (Adhan). Abdullah bin Maktoum was the other Mu-adh-dhin. The Adhan is a call to prayer, a call to praise Allah/God.
Narration of Abu Umayr ibn Anas on the event that led to the conception of the Adhan. *Al-Qasim bin Abdur Rahman confirms that Bilal ibn Rabah is the first one to call to prayer (Adhan).
Bilal is said to have set foot first in Heaven before the Messenger Muhammad. Ibn Abbas says that when the Messenger (P.B.U.H) was taken on a night journey (Isra), he reached Paradise and heard a sound not far from him. The messenger said, “O Jibreel (Angel Gabriel), what is this?” Jibreel said: “This is Bilal, the Mu’adhdhin.” As the messenger (P.B.U.H.) comes back to the people, he tells them, “Bilal has reached success, I saw such and such for him.” Abu Huraira narrates that at the time of the Fajr prayer messenger Muhammad (P.B.U.H.) said to Bilal, “Tell me of the best deed you did once Islam became your path, for I heard your footstep in front of me in Paradise.” Bilal answered, “I did not do anything worth mentioning except that whenever I performed ablution during the day or night, I prayed after that ablution as much as was written for me.”
Messenger Muhammad (P.B.U.H.) was pleased with the words and asked Abdulah to go to the mosque and teach it to Bilal. From there, as the chief Mu-adh-dhin [مؤذن] Bilal became the first to give his voice for the call to prayer (Adhan). Abdullah bin Maktoum was the other Mu-adh-dhin. The Adhan is a call to prayer, a call to praise Allah/God.
Narration of Abu Umayr ibn Anas on the event that led to the conception of the Adhan. *Al-Qasim bin Abdur Rahman confirms that Bilal ibn Rabah is the first one to call to prayer (Adhan).
Bilal is said to have set foot first in Heaven before messenger Muhammad. Ibn Abbas says that when the Messenger (P.B.U.H) was taken on a night journey (Isra), he reached Paradise and heard a sound not far from him. The messenger said, “O Jibreel (Angel Gabriel), what is this?” Jibreel said: “This is Bilal, the Mu’adhdhin.” As the messenger (P.B.U.H.) comes back to the people, he tells them, “Bilal has reached success, I saw such and such for him.” Abu Huraira narrates that at the time of the Fajr prayer messenger Muhammad (P.B.U.H.) said to Bilal, “Tell me of the best deed you did once Islam became your path, for I heard your footstep in front of me in Paradise.” Bilal answered, “I did not do anything worth mentioning except that whenever I performed ablution during the day or night, I prayed after that ablution as much as was written for me.”
The Event of Aamul Feel
The Year Of The Elephant is marked by the event of Aamul Feel, which is also tied to the 105th chapter of the Qur’an, the surah Al-Fil [ٱلفِيل]. It pulls from the confrontation between Abrahah* a Christian ruler, and the Quraysh tribes of Makkah (Arabia). Abrahah, who took power of Yaman, made himself the authority of the area by defying Emperor Kaleb [ካሌብ]* of Aksum (Abyssinia/Ethiopia), and casting out Sumu-Yafa Ashwa [Greek: Esimiphaios: Εσιμιφαίος], the one who was legitimately put in place. Abrahah sought to attack Makkah and destroy the Ka’bah, which has been a central place of worship for a long time. Abrahah aimed to divert the pilgrimage from Makkah to his own cathedral in Yemen. The Quraysh, despite being outnumbered, defended their city, and in Islam, their victory is believed to be a miracle by God’s will.
Emperor Kaleb [ካሌብ] is also known as Ella Asheba [እለ አጽብሐ], [Greek: Hellestheaios: Ελλεσθεαίος], Elesbaan (Latin), or Saint Elesbaan. To dig deeper and put this in context, Emperor Kaleb was the ruler of Aksum, and Abrahah Zabyaman [አብርሃ፡ ዘብያመን] was one of his military commanders. The Aksumite Empire, thriving from the 1st to 7th century CE, covering modern Ethiopia, Eritrea, and Yemen, was a dominant trade hub connecting Africa to the Red Sea. The emperor’s reign would be the last breath of the Aksumite expansion under the Christian banner with the alliance with the Byzantine empire.
In the 6th century (525 CE), emperor Kaleb carried out a military campaign crossing the Red Sea, aiming towards Yemen to safeguard the Christian population of Najran from the persecutions of the Jewish Himyarite king named Dhu Nuwas. The Byzantine emperor Justin I wrote a letter to his Aksumite brother in faith to urgently go to the rescue of the believers in Yemen. Judaism was well rooted in the area of Hedjaz, with traditions going back as far as the visit of the Queen of Sheba to King Solomon. However, beyond faith, the adoption of Judaism by Dhu Nuwas was instrumentalized as his ambition for geopolitical dominion was the true object of his opposition to the Byzantine and Aksumite Christians.
Abraha was one of the key military commanders in this fleet, which is said to have been up to 70,000 men. Emperor Kaleb’s victory marks the end of Dhu Nuwas reign (515-525 CE) and the beginning of Aksum's greatest territorial grasp yet, also the dawn of a new era. Following his military success in Yemen, Emperor Kaleb, who reigned from 500-534 CE, experienced turmoil yet also a spiritual transformation motivated by an ascetic named Zenon. From there, emperor Kaleb, also known as Saint Elesbaan, abdicated his throne and sent his crown to be showcased to the Church of the holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, to finally enter the Abba Pantelewon monastery to live the rest of his life as a priest.
When Emperor Kaleb abdicated the throne, he left behind a power vacuum that led to civil war in Yemen and eventually led to the march on Mecca soil. While Emperor Kaleb was still in power, he summoned Esimiphaios, also known as Sumu-Yafa Ashwa [ሱምያፋ አሽዋ], to be his governor in Yemen. Sumu-Yafa Ashwa was able to rule the area for four (4) years. Unfortunately, Sumu-Yafa Ashwa was not favored by the Aksumite soldiers stationed in Yemen. The soldiers were found to be more loyal to Abrahah than Sumu-Yafa Ashwa and even Emperor Kaleb. Abrahah, the former slave who climbed to be a high-ranking officer, led a coup to overthrow Sumu-Yafa Ashwa.
In response to this, Emperor Kaleb sent two military troops to punish Abrahah’s treason. Unfortunately, Kaleb’s first general was killed by his own soldiers while the second troop was defeated. This event was followed by King Kaleb’s abdication, which was counseled by Zenon not to seek vengeance.
Emperor Kaleb’s [ካሌብ] successor was Gabra Maskal [ገብረ መስቀል], also known as Alla Amidas. Under Gabra Maskal, Abrahah accepted to be a tributary of the Kingdom of Aksum. Abrahah maneuvered himself to hold the title of King of Kings by consolidating his power over what is known in South Arabia as the 4 pillars:
1) Saba (Sheba) obviously for the lineage of Saba, yet also for its agricultural wealth.
2) Dhu-Raydan, as the heart of the Himyarite Kingdom
3) Hadramaut, an area known as a center of crafting and trade of incense.
4) Yamanat, being the broad coastal areas.
At the dawn of the event of Aamul Feel, Gabra Maskal [ገብረ መስቀል](523–537) had two successors, Konstantinos Sahel VI [ቈስጠንጢኖስ] (537–565) and Wasan Sagad Maharna Kristos II [ወሰን ሰገድ ማህረነ ክርስቶስ] (565–580). It is not clear whether Konstantinos was Kaleb’s or Gabra Maskal’s son.
*Here, the term Aksum is used as the term "Abyssinia" is a later medieval European term that exists in a different geographical configuration. To summarize, the original Aksumite state was far more expansive, controlling at its height territories from the Nile to the Gulf of Aden. In fact, Aksum extended its dominion westward to the kingdom of Meroe, southward toward the Omo River, and eastward to the spice coasts on the Gulf of Aden. Even the South Arabian kingdom of the Himyarites, across the Red Sea in what is now Yemen, came under the suzerainty of Aksum. The empire’s downfall began with the great Zoroastrian Persian take over (572 CE) and was finalized 30 years later by the rise of Islamic Arab powers (7th and 8th century CE), which cut off Aksum’s vital Mediterranean trade routes and isolated the kingdom.
When it comes to the battle of Aamul Feel, historians like Anthony Keith Beeston and Michael John Kister believe that Abrahah’s campaign to Makkah was first initiated 20 to 15 years earlier than the traditional date of 570 CE. It is a debate between historians that either lean towards archeological scripture or traditional oral history. The Key dates are 547 CE, 552 CE, and 570 CE.
In 547 CE, as a manifestation of power, Abrahah commissions a massive scripture known as CIH541 at the Ma’arab Dam in Saba. The scripture chronicles things such as Abrahah’s suppression of a massive uprising in Yemen. Also cites the measures taken after the disaster caused by the rupture of the main irrigation dam. It lists foreign embassies that came to congratulate his victory, notably the Persians, the Byzantines, and the Aksumites etc. It is ’round the same time that he made sure to bring churches back to good condition as he was building the Cathedral in Sana’a.
In 552 CE (possibly 547 as well), the scriptures of the Murayghan chronicle the expedition sent by Abrahah to submit the Ma’add tribes who controlled Makkah. The Ma’add were a large confederation of northern Arabian tribes. The scriptures also chronicle the defeat of these tribes that became tributaries. Abrahah summoned Amrum bin Mundhir as commissioner for the tribes.
While on the surface, Abrahah’s motivation was faith-driven, factually, it was a geopolitical strategy. The goals were to first control the trade routes by submitting the tribes ‘round Makkah and Madina to control the circulation of incense from Yemen to the Byzantine Empire. Secondly, to create a buffer zone of joined Christian allies to be ready for the possible expansion of the Sassanian Persians towards the Hijaz.
Now the battle of Aamul Feel [The Year Of The Elephant], in Islam as well as oral tradition occurs in 570 CE, ‘round the same time of the birth of Messenger Muhammad (P.B.U.H.) and Bilal the Mu-adh-dhin. In this second expedition, Abrahah, who by that time held the title of Negus, had for ambition to completely annex the area and expand the Christian dominion. As said earlier, Abrahah aimed to divert the pilgrimage from the Ka’bah (Makkah) who was the center of worship, to his Cathedral in Sana’a (Yemen). Abrahah* was not able to fully establish stability in the area, facing continuous contestations and uprises. The people of Makkah, notably the Quraysh, saw this as a threat to their daily bread. The Bēta Kerestiyān Cathedral [ቤተ ክርስቲያን], known in Arabic as Al-Qullays [ القُلَّيْس], was vandalized as an offense to Abrahah. A man from the Quraysh tribe travelled all the way to Sana’a to urinate and throw dirt at the place of worship. It made Abrahah furious, so he used this offense as a justification for war.
*Abrahah, also known as Abrahah al-Ashram [الأشرم], an Arabic term for scar-face or split-face due to a duel with an Aksumite commander named Aryat [አርያት].
Abrahah raised a massive army of 60,000 men known as Ashab al-Fil army (The possessors of the Elephant) for his war elephants. On his march towards Makkah, it was not a hard task for the Ashab al-Fil army to tame the local opposition. It is said that Abrahah seized livestock from the Makkah population, notably 200 camels belonging to the Messenger’s (P.B.U.H.) grandfather Abd al-Muttalib. Abd Al-Muttalib was the chief of the Quraysh, custodian of the Ka’bah, and known to be a charismatic leader with a strong character. Muttalib went to Abraha whom welcomed him with respect, then asked him the reason of his visit and to give back the camels.
Abrahah is said to have answered: “I Am surprised that I came here to chatter your holy place, the Ka’bah, of which you did not speak anything and are only asking for your camels. To this, Abd al-Muttalib said: “I Am the lord of the camels; however, the Sacred House (Ka’bah) has a Lord who will shield it from harm.”
After the conversation, Abraha gave back the camels. By that time, Muttalib ordered his people to shelter themselves in the caves at the top of the mountains as he went to the door of the Ka’bah. Unable to safeguard the Ka’bah, Abd al-Muttalib cried his heart out, leaning to the side of the door of the Ka’bah and pleading, “Safeguard O Lord, Your Own House! And do not allow the Cross to triumph over the Ka’bah. The entire population of Makkah went to the hills circling the Holy City, and Muttalib eventually joined them.
It seems that all sorts of calamities started to happen to Abrahah’s army. It is said that as the army was on the way to charge an attack, the lead elephant named Mahmud knelt and stopped moving. Then took a different direction. Following this, a swarm of birds coming from the sea started to drop stones from the sky and chattered at the army. The birds are said to have carried three stones, one in the beak and two under their feet. Version of the story would say that each man whom a stone was thrown, was struck by a form of smallpox or some other contagious disease. Abrahah himself suffered from smallpox, and the whole army fled in confusion and consternation, leaving behind the dead bodies for the bird to feast on. The birds attacked with such might that the stones broke the caps of people, passed from their heads, cutting their bodies, as well as the elephants. The gravity of the situation had the soldier unable to find their way back, perishing in the valleys, while some were swept by floods. This event was marked in the collective memory as the event of Aamul Feel.
Note to say, even though the Ka’bah was filled with idols at that time, it was spared from the wrath of Abrahah’s Army. This event is believed to be a sign from the Creator/Allah as the birth of the Messenger (P.B.U.H.) would be the fulfillment of Abraham’s (P.B.U.H.) covenant. The Arabs knew the Ka’bah was the house built and blessed by Abraham (P.B.U.H.) and his elder son Ishmael. The Arabs are the seeds of Ishmael. As the Qur’an states:
Surah Al-Baqarah 2:125-127
125. And ˹remember˺ when We made the Sacred House1 a centre and a sanctuary for the people ˹saying˺, “˹You may˺ take the standing-place of Abraham2 as a site of prayer.” And We entrusted Abraham and Ishmael to purify My House for those who circle it, who meditate in it, and who bow and prostrate themselves ˹in prayer˺.
126. And ˹remember˺ when Abraham said, “My Lord, make this city ˹of Mecca˺ secure and provide fruits to its people—those among them who believe in Allah and the Last Day.” He answered, “As for those who disbelieve, I will let them enjoy themselves for a little while, then I will condemn them to the torment of the Fire. What an evil destination!”
127. And ˹remember˺ when Abraham raised the foundation of the House with Ishmael, ˹both praying,˺ “Our Lord! Accept ˹this˺ from us. You are indeed the All-Hearing, All-Knowing.
Messenger Muhammad (P.B.U.H.) was born on the 9th of Rabi Al Awwal, which is in 571 CE, somewhere between the 20th and the 22nd of April. Young Muhammad (P.B.U.H.) did not grow up seeing his father, Abdullah ibn Abd al-Muttalib, as he transitioned before he was born. Muhammad’s mother also transitioned when he was 6 years old. Then Abd Al-Muttalib, his grandfather, took care of him for 2 years before transitioning. So, at the age of 8 years old, he was under the care of his uncle Abu Talib. It is believed that young Muhammad may have had an Aksumite nanny. In his early childhood, Messenger Muhammad had cordial ties with the people of Aksum. He worked as a shepherd for the people of Makkah and was known to be Al-Ameen (The trustworthy) and As-Sadiq (The Truthful). There was also an Aksumite Christian community in Makkah composed of merchants, artisans and soldiers which young Muhammad was in contact with early on. We also have to consider that Aksum is part of the Qur’an narrative. It is said that approximately 200 words in the Qur’an are of Geez/Amharic origin.
During his struggle with the Quraysh over Makkah, messenger Muhammad (P.B.U.H) sent some of the believers to the Kingdom of Aksum to seek shelter and safeguard from persecution. Telling them that Aksum is a welcoming country with a king who does not tolerate injustice. It is said that a first group of 15 believers (12 men + 5 women) cross the red sea to reach Aksum in 616 CE. A second group led by the messenger’s cousin find shelter in Aksum the next year. Some Quraysh emissaries also came to Aksum to try to convince the Negus Ella-Sham* [እለ ሰሐም] to send back the believers to Arabia, which he declined. Some tales say that the Negus Ella-Sham was compelled by the faith of the believers and that he secretly converted to Islam.
To name the king of Aksum, the Arabs used the word Nashaji [النجاشي] for the geez term Negus [ንግሥ] (king). His full title is Negusa Nagast, meaning King of Kings. The name Ashama used by the Arabs come from the geez Ella-Saham alternately written Sahama. The root word is Saham [ሰሐም], meaning Gift or the Giver. So the Arabs would call him Najashi Ashama ibn Abjar. **By that time, the rule of Abrahah has ended (575 CE) as the Persian Sāsānians took over the area brought the Sabean Kingdom to an end.
In the sixth year following the Hijra* in 628 CE, once his authority was consolidated, Messenger Muhammad (P.B.U.H.) sent emissaries to bring back the believers. Negus Ella-Sham gave two boats to transport the believers back home; however, only 16 chose to go back. It is said that those who stayed settled in northern Aksum, in the small village of Negash, located in the eastern part of Tigray. This is where Al-Nejashi, the first Mosque of Africa, was built. When Negus Ella-Sham transitioned in 630 CE, Messenger Muhammad (P.B.U.H.) prayed for his soul to rest in peace.
*Hijra means migration, departure, or separation.
Messenger Muhammad (P.B.U.H.) always kept peaceful ties with the Aksum till his last day. The first Muslims never fought the Aksumites and had continuous commercial activities with them. However, on the 2 following centuries, as Islam became more dominant, the Aksumites were gradually losing their grip from the broader part of the coastal area of the Red Sea.
Context of Islam
Before Muhammad (P.B.U.H.), the last one from the Abrahamic lineage who came with a message was Isa ibn Maryam [Jesus/Yeshua] (P.B.U.H.). When Isa was raised to the heavens by Allah, there was a void of 570 years that kept the people of the book* in darkness. Just a few of them strived to stay on the path and follow the guidelines of the messengers of the past. The people of Arabia believed that they were still following the path of Abraham/Ibrahim (P.B.U.H.). However, they performed the Hajj (pilgrimage) to the Ka’bah, adding to it many elements of worship that were not taught by Ibrahim nor Ishmael. At that time, no messenger had come with a word to the Arab people. Many strayed by listening to the words of charlatans, fell to idolatry, polytheism, or worshipping objects or people. During that period, evil was overwhelmingly taking place, social decay, fornication, adultery, drunkenness, gambling, robbery, prostitution, human sacrifice, female infanticide, tribal wars, people were being buried live etc. Slavery was a common custom, and the captives were treated as a subspecies that could be harmed, tortured, and murdered arbitrarily.
*The people of the book are basically those to whom the word of the Creator/Allah [الله]came, i.e., Jews, Christians, and Muslims. Possibly the Zoroastrians with their book the Zend Avesta, and others that are not explicitly spoken of.
Messenger Muhammad (P.B.U.H.) did not come with a new faith or a new message. He came as the one calling the people back to the original spiritual path from Adam to Isa ibn Maryam. A path of peace, oneness, and union with the Creator/Allah.
Saba in the scriptures
Saba is a city in Yaman also known as Ma’arab. In the Qur’an, the narrative of the city of Saba is marked by the collapse of the Ma’arab dam and the destruction of the city by a flood. These are known to be historical event that took place between the first and the second century CE. The story of Saba in the Qur’an serves as a warning to all nations that are blessed with greatness and wealth, which gradually falls in luxury while virtue is decaying, and corruption is rising. There is for example, Roboam, the direct successor of Solomon who failed to listen to the counsel of the wise and rather obeyed his compulsions. In the context of the Qur’an, the surah Al-Saba* speaks of the Quraysh who had become tyrannical. It is also a message for the Muslim nations to not forget their duty.
The Queen of Saba is known in Hebrew as Malkat Sheva [מַלְכַּת שְׁבָא], in Arabic as Malikat Saba [ملكة سبأ]*. In the Kabra Nagast, she is known as Makeda, while in Islamic literature* her name is Bilqis. However, it seems that the names are more of a contemporary use than being her original name. It is not clear that she is from Aksum, where evidence would rather suggest that she is from South-Western Arabia. She was most likely a Sabaean princess from the city of Saba/Sheba. There is no clear knowledge of her family or lineage besides the fact that her ancestors were possibly settlers in Arabia, with some of Aksumite Origin. Her royal status would situate her as a native of an area on the western shore of the Red Sea.
In the surah Al-Saba, the 34th Chapter of the Qur’an, Saba, also known as Ma’arab, is the name of the city taking the name of its founder, most likely in the lineage of the Queen of Saba. It is said to be at three days from San’a in a traditional caravan, 107 miles is 2 to 3 hours nowadays. *The name Bilqis is found in some Islamic literature and commentaries on the Qur’an. However, the name Malikat Saba [ملكة سبأ] can be found in the verses of the Qur’an.
There are two distinctive mentions of the Saba lineage in the Torah/Bible. The Table of Nations [The Seventy Nations] in Genesis 10 speaks of two branches of Saba. The Hamitic Kushite Saba (Adites) in Gn 10:7 being the grandson of Kush, and the Semitic Joktanite Saba in 10:28 being the son of Joktan in the lineage of Shem. This confirms the ties between Saba and Southern Arabian tribes. The Book of Kings and The Chronicles show the lineage of the rulers, as well as the Queen of Saba, to be tied to the mentioned patriarchs [I King and II Chronicles]. Furthermore, the people of Kedar, son of Ishamael, son of Abraham, are the northern Arabian tribes that already blended for thousands of years by the time Messenger was born [Gn 25:12-17]. Messenger Muhammad (P.B.U.H.) is from the Adnanite branch which goes back to Kedar. They originally lived in the northern Arabian desert and the Hejaz, the area covering Makkah and Madinah. The northern (Kedar) and the southern (Saba) tribes and distinguished in Ezekiel 27:21-22.
It is said that the Kushites, originally known as Adites, were the first dwellers of Arabia. The Adites are the seeds of Ad, the grandson of Ham, son of Noah. At its core, the people of the area are originally Hamitic, with some element of Semitic and possibly Dravidic. The northern tribes coming from the Kedar, the son Ishmael are in some way the cadets of the Adites. The most fruitful tribes of the seeds of Ishmael are Nebayoth, the firstborn, and Kedar, the second son. *Kedar is also mentioned in Isaiah 42:11 and Psalm 120:5.
Ishamel Genealogy
The Chumash - Bereishis/Genesis 25:12-18
“These are the descendants of Ishmael, Abraham’s son, whom Hagar the Egyptian, Sarah’s maidservant, bore Abraham. These are names of the sons of Ishmael by their names, in order of their birth: Ishmael’s firstborn Nebaioth, Kedar, Adbeel, and Mibsam, Mishma, Dumah, and Massa, Hadad and Tema, Jetur, Naphish, and Kedem. These are the sons of Ishmanel, and these are their names by their open cities and by their strongholds, twelve chieftains for their nations. These were the years of Ishamel’s life: one hundred years, thirty years, and seven years, and he expired and died, and was gathered to his people. The Dwelt from Havilah to Shur – which is near Egypt – towards Assyria; over all his brothers he dwelt.”
TANAKH – Ezekiel 27: 21-22
“Arabia and all Kedar’s chiefs were traders under your rule; they traded with you in lambs, rams, and goats. The merchants of Sheba and Raamah were your merchants; they bartered for your wares all the finest spices, all kinds of precious stones, and gold.”
TANAKH – Isaiah 42:11-12
“Let the desert and its towns cry aloud,
The villages where Kedar dwells;
Let Sela’s inhabitants shout,
Call out from the peaks of the mountains.
Let them do honor to GOD,
And tell God’s glory in the coastlands.”
TANAKH – Psalm 120:5-7
“Woe is me, that I live with Meshech, that I dwell among the clans of Kedar. Too long have I dwelt with those who hate peace. I am all peace; but when I speak, they are for war.”
Noah Genealogy
The Chumash – Bereishis/Genesis 10:1
“These are descendants of the sons of Noah: Shem, Ham, and Japheth; sons were born to them after the Flood.”
Ham Genealogy
The Chumash – Bereishis/Genesis 10:6-7
“The sons of Ham: Cush, Mizraim, Put, and Canaan. The sons of Cush: Seba, Havilah, Sabtah, Raamah, and Sabteca. The sons of Raamah: Sheba and Dedan.”
Shem Genealogy
The Chumash – Bereishis/Genesis 10:21-29
“And to Shem, also to him were born; he was the ancestor of all those who lived on the other side; the brother of Japheth the elder. The sibs of Shem: Elam, Asshur, Arpachshad, lud and Aram. The sons of Aram: Uz, Hul, Gether, and Mash. Arpachshad begot Shelah, and Shelah begot Eber. And to Eber were born two sons: The name of the first was Peleg, for his days the earth was divided, and the name of his brother was Joktan. Joktan begot Almodad, Seleph, Hazarmaveth, Jerah, Hadoram, Uzal, Diklah, Obal, Abimael, Sheba, Ophir, Havilah, and Jobad; all these were sons of Joktan.”
East – to south-west Iran (Elam),
West – to southern Spain (Tarshish),
South – to East Africa (Seba) and Yemen (Sheba),
North – to Ukraine (Ashkenaz: the Scythians)
It is believed that five major Aksumite rulers reigned before the Queen of Saba: 1) Arawi, 400 years before, 2) Angabo, 200 years before, 3) Giedur, 100 years before, 4) Siebado, 50 years before, and 5) Kawnasya, 1 year before. ** These are names of rulers and their dynastic length, yet also the marker of an era.
1) Arawi is portrayed as a beast or dragon king in the Kabra Nagast*. He is tied to an era of arbitrary and despotic rule. Pagan belief, nature worshipping and sacrificial cult dominated the area for centuries.
2) In the narrative, Angabo is The One who kills the beast Arawi. Angabo comes as a benevolent leader of the people that gives birth to an organized government that is the starting point of the Aksumite Civilization.
3) Giedur (GDR/GDRT), also named Gadarat by historians. He is known for being the first to open the way towards South Arabia.
4) Siebado is known to be the architect of a solid administrative structure that unites the warring Agazyan* tribes, consolidating the power and trade from Tigray to the Red Sea.
5) Kawnasya is possibly the Queen of Saba’s father, from whom she was the successor. The succession would normally be transmitted to a man, and Kawnasya had no son.
*Five Kings before Saba - Source Oxford manuscript (August Dillmann p. xliiii Bodleian Library Catalog p.26) *In Ge'ez Arewi/Arewe means beast or serpent. ***The Agazyan, meaning “The free One’s,” were semitic speaking tribes who migrated from South Arabia to Kush and mixed with the people.
TANAKH - I King 10 : 1-13
“The queen of Sheba heard of Solomon’s fame, through the name of GOD, and she came to test him with hard questions.
She arrived in Jerusalem with a very large retinue, with camels bearing spices, a great quantity of gold, and precious stones. When she came to Solomon, she asked him all that she had in mind.
Solomon had answers for all her questions; there was nothing that the king did not know, [nothing] to which he could not give her an answer.
When the queen of Sheba observed all of Solomon’s wisdom, and the palace he had built, the fare of his table, the seating of his courtiers, the service and attire of his attendants, and his wine service, and the burnt offerings that he offered at the House of GOD, she was left breathless.
She said to the king, “The report I heard in my own land about you and your wisdom was true.
But I did not believe the reports until I came and saw with my own eyes that not even the half had been told me; your wisdom and wealth surpass the reports that I heard.
How fortunate are your people, and how fortunate are these your courtiers, who are always in attendance on you and can hear your wisdom!
Praised be the ETERNAL, your God, who delighted in you and set you on the throne of Israel. It is because of GOD’s everlasting love for Israel that you were made king—to administer justice and righteousness.”
She presented the king with one hundred and twenty talents of gold, and a large quantity of spices, and precious stones. Never again did such a vast quantity of spices arrive as that which the queen of Sheba gave to King Solomon.—
Moreover, Hiram’s fleet, which carried gold from Ophir, brought in from Ophir a huge quantity of almug wood and precious stones.
The king used the almug wood for decorations in the House of GOD and in the royal palace, and for harps and lyres for the musicians. Such a quantity of almug wood has never arrived or been seen to this day.—
King Solomon, in turn, gave the queen of Sheba everything she wanted and asked for, in addition to what King Solomon gave her out of his royal bounty. Then she and her attendants left and returned to her own land.”
TANAKH – II Chronicles 9
“The queen of Sheba heard of Solomon’s fame, and came to Jerusalem to test Solomon with hard questions, accompanied by a very large retinue, including camels bearing spices, a great quantity of gold, and precious stones. When she came to Solomon, she spoke to him of all that she had on her mind.
Solomon had answers for all her questions; there was nothing that Solomon did not know, nothing to which he could not give her an answer.
When the queen of Sheba saw how wise Solomon was and the palace he had built, the fare of his table, the seating of his courtiers, the service and attire of his attendants, his butlers and their attire, and the procession with which he went up to the House of GOD, it took her breath away.
She said to the king, “What I heard in my own land about you and your wisdom was true.
I did not believe what they said until I came and saw with my own eyes that not even the half of your great wisdom had been described to me; you surpass the report that I heard.
How fortunate are your people, and how fortunate are these courtiers of yours who are always in attendance on you and can hear your wisdom!
Blessed is the ETERNAL your God, who favored you and set you on the throne as a king before the ETERNAL. It is because of your God’s love for Israel and in order to establish them forever that you were made king over them to execute righteous justice.”
She presented the king with 120 talents of gold and a vast quantity of spices and precious stones. There were no such spices as those that the queen of Sheba gave to King Solomon—
also, the servants of Huram and Solomon who brought gold from Ophir brought algum-wood and precious stones.
The king made of the algum-wood ramps for the House of GOD and for the royal palace, and lyres and harps for the musicians, whose like had never before been seen in the land of Judah—
King Solomon, in turn, gave the queen of Sheba everything she expressed a desire for, exceeding a return for what she had brought to the king. Then she and her courtiers left and returned to her own land.
As mentioned earlier, Hedjaz kept traditions that go back as far as the meeting between the Queen of Saba and Solomon. Saba is seen as beautiful, bright, and wise. Her kingdom was a symbol of wealth and prosperity, the land of gold and incense. She was a sun worshiper. There is a narrative in Surah An-Naml* in the Qur’an where Saba sends a gift to Solomon that may have offended him. It was a throne with nude figures and idol paintings. The other part of the Qur’an speaks of when Saba enters the palace of Solomon, she sees a floor that looks like it’s water* and pulls up her robe not to get wet. It was some sort of floor made of crystal or glass. As she came before King Solomon in Jerusalem, she humbled herself, though he was more blessed; he was not making a display of power and opulence. The gesture of humility was before the Creator/Allah[الله] itself as Solomon was bringing her to his faith. The Queen was compelled by the way Solomon expressed himself with wisdom and depth. He had a gentle, suiting, melodic voice that had her drawn to him. Solomon welcomed Saba with great honor, celebrated her, and took her as a spouse. It is said that the Queen spent several months, then went back home with Solomon’s heir in her belly. Thus, Menelik I* was born as a younger brother of Roboam, who was the heir to the throne of Israel. As a young man, Menelik did get the chance to meet his father in Jerusalem. He was said to look just like his father, Solomon, who welcomed him with great joy. Menelik spent some time on the side of King Solomon, then went back to his country. As planned with Solomon, Menelik I settled a parallel Jewish Kingdom in Saba*.
*Solomon in Hebrew is known as Shlomo [שְׁלֹמֹה], in Arabic as Sulayman [سليمان]. Surah An-Naml 24:22-44 gives a different take of the meeting between Solomon and Saba. *Menelik I is said to be the founder of the Solomonic dynasty that found its term with emperor Haile Selassie I in 1974. ***Menelik was also known as Walda-Tabbîb, meaning the son of the wise man.
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TO BE UPDATED
Bilal, Queen Sheeba, Solomon, Aksum, Axum, Muhammad, Islam
Book: The Authentic Biography of Bilal bin Rabah – the first Mu’adhdhin of Islam By Mohammed Thajammul Hussain Manna P.39-42
Book: Histoire de l’Éthiopie L’œuvre du temps by Paul B. Henze
P.17-21, 29-31, 39, 45-47, 51-57.
The Kebra Nagast
by E. A. Wallis Budge | 1922 | 105,409 words
The Sacred Qur’an
Maulana Muhammad Ali's translation from Arabic to the French/English version (1990) with commentaries.
SaBa: 34:14-16 (Commentaries)
An-Naml 27:22-44
Al-Baqarah : 2: 125-127
The Bible
1 King 10: 1-13
2 Chronicles
The Chumash - The Stone Edition, Edited by Rabbi Nosson Scherman/Rabbi Meir Zlotowitz
Bereishis/Genesis 10:1, 6-7, 21-29 - 25: 12-18
Photo: Table Of Seventy Nations
Seforia Library/TANAKH
Table Of Seventy Nations
The Table of Nations: The Geography of the World in Genesis 10 by Prof.John Day
The Wisdom Library – The Kebra Nagast [Introduction I. The Manuscripts of the Kebra Nagast]
Adhan
Movie/Doc
THE MESSAGE - English
The Kebra Nagast | The Queen of the South - How King of Ethiopia Travelled | Chapters XXI - XXXIII
Faces of Africa: Keepers Of The Ark
Oxford manuscript (August Dillmann p. xliiii Bodleian Library Catalog p.26)
WIKIPEDIA
Ancient maritime history
GDRT
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